Contextual Learning

Learning resources that can be used as a reference for the tasks college education majoring in English.

CONNECTORS

0 Comments Posted By: Denny Dixie On 03.50


CONNECTORS
Coordinating conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions are used to connect two independent clauses (sentences).
Note: A comma always appears before a coordinating conjunction that separates two independent clauses.

Purpose
Conjunction
Example
To show reason
For*
He ate a sandwich, for he was hungry.
To add information
And
Carla lives in Toronto, and she is a student.
To add negative information
Nor**
Roberto doesn’t like opera, nor does he enjoy hip-hop.
To show contrast
But
The exam was difficult, but everyone passed.
To give a choice
Or
We can eat Chinese food, or we can order a pizza.
To show concession/ contrast
Yet+
The exam was difficult, yet everyone passed
To show result
So
It was raining, so we decided to stay home last night.


*The conjunction for is not common in spoken English.
**Notice question word order is used in the clause that follows nor.
+The conjunctions but and yet have similar meanings. However, yet is generally used to show a stronger contrast.

Subordinating conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions are used to connect a dependent clause and an independent clause.
Note: When the sentence begins with the dependent clause, a comma should be used after the clause. Following is a list of common subordinating conjunctions.

Purpose
Conjunction
Example
To show reason/ cause
because
He ate a sandwich, because he was hungry.

since
Since he was hungry, he ate a sandwich.

as
As he was hungry, he ate a sandwich.



To show contrast
although
Although the exam was difficult, everyone passed.

though
Though the exam was difficult, everyone passed.

even though
Even though the exam was difficult, everyone passed.

while
Deborah is a dentist, while John is a doctor.



To show time relationship
after
After we ate dinner, we went to a movie.

before
We ate dinner before we went to a movie.

until
I won’t call you until I finish studying.

while
While the pasta is cooking, I’ll cut the vegetables.

as
As I was leaving the office, it started to rain.



To show condition
if
If it rains tomorrow, we’ll stay home.

even if
We’ll go to the park even if it rains tomorrow.




Comma Rules

0 Comments Posted By: Denny Dixie On 03.49


Some Common Comma Rules
     1.       Put a comma before and, but, for, or nor, so, yet, when they connect two independent clauses.
Richard bought Julie a candy bar, but he ate it himself.
     2.       Put a comma between three or more items in a series.
Jennifer brought a towel, an umbrella, some sunscreen, and a book to the beach.
     3.       Put a comma after a clause with a connecting word { a dependent clause) when that clause begins a sentence.
Because it was raining outside, Alex used his umbrella.
     4.       Put a comma before or after the name of a person spoken to.
“Hamad, do you want to play soccer?” Ana asked.
“Do you want to play soccer, Hammad?” Ana asked.
     5.       Commas separate parts of dates and places. Put a comma between the day and the date, between the date and the year, between a city and a state or a country.
 I was born on Wednesday, June 27, 1989.
The concert was in Boston, Massachusetts.
The headquarters of that company is located in Osaka, Japan.
     6.       Use a comma to separate an introductory word or phrase from the rest of the sentence.
Finally, they decided to ask the police for help.
Every afternoon after school, I go to the library.
     7.       Put a comma to separate information that is not necessary in a sentence.
Rome, which is the capital of Italy, has a lot of pollution.
George Washington, the first president of the United States, was a military officer.
     8.       Put a comma after the salutation in personal letters and after the conclusion in personal and business letters.
Dear Roberta,
Dear Dr. Smith,
Dear Ms. Kennedy,



Sincerely,
With love,
Yours truly,
Jonathan
Grandma
Alicia





PART XI
AUXILIARIES or EQUIVALENT PHRASES that Express Ability To Do Something
CAN and COULD
For present or future time : CAN + simple form
For past time : COULD + simple form
He can swim the length of the pool.
I can see you tomorrow morning.
She could drive a car by the time she was sixteen.
He said that he could come tomorrow.
Cannot (can’t) and could not ( couldn’t) express inability:
He can’t come today.
He couldn’t come yesterday.

BE ABLE TO

For present (future) time: AM (Is, Are) ABLE TO + simple form
For past time                    : WAS (Were) ABLE TO + simple form
For future time:                 WILL BE ABLE TO or AM (Is, Are) GOING TO BE ABLE TO + simple form
I’m able to drive in traffic now.
He is now able to walk without crutches.
They were able to go after all.
We’re going to be able to see you tomorrow.
For future time in a noun clause following a past tense verb form, would be able to or was (were) going to be able to is ordinarily used:
He said that he would be able to help us move next week.
They told me that they were going to be able to leave on Saturday.
Am not, was not (wasn’t) etc. + able to and am, was etc. + unable to express inability.
I’m not able to accept your invitation.
I’m unable to accept your invitation.

AUXILIARIES USED in REQUESTING and GIVING PERMISSION TO DO SOMETHING.

MAY, CAN, COULD are used in requesting permission. Although may and can are used interchangeably in making requests, there are some people who consider can unacceptable. Could has the effect of softening can.
For present or future time: MAY/ CAN/ COULD + simple form
May I leave now?
May I see you tomorrow?
Can I borrow your book?
Could I turn in my paper tomorrow?
The use of can’t or couldn’t suggests that the speaker realizes there is some reason why permission may not be given.
I know the assignment is due today, but can’t (couldn’t) I turn it in tomorrow?

MAY, CAN, COULD are used in giving permission.
You may leave now.
You may come back at 5:30.
You can hang your coat here.
You could have an appointment tomorrow.
Cannot (can’t) is ordinarily used when permission is not given:
You can’t come in just now.
You can’t park your car here.

AUXILIARIES or EQUIVALENT PHRASES that EXPRESS OBLIGATION and NECESSITY.

SHOULD and OUGHT TO

For present or future time: SHOULD , OUGHT TO + simple form
You should be ashamed of yourself.
I should study tonight because I’m behind in my homework, but I probably won’t.
She ought to improve her appearance before she looks for a job.
For unfulfilled obligations in past time: SHOULD, OUGHT TO + past participle
I should have given you my telephone number.
He should have seen a doctor.
I told him that he ought to have known better.
Should is ordinarily used in negative statements and in questions:
You shouldn’t smoke so much.
Should I ask jane now?
Shouldn’t you stay home when you have had a cold?

HAD BETTER also expresses as should or ought to.

For present or future time: HAD BETTER + simple form
You had better take care of your cold.
I’d better be on my way now.
Had better not expresses obligation not to do something.
 You had better not go out without a coat.
He’d better not be late again.

MUST and HAVE TO express a strong sense of obligation.

For present or future time : MUST, HAVE (HAS) TO + simple form
They must be there on time.
I must remember to telephone Nancy.
I have to go to the grocery store.
He has to study tonight.
For past time : HAD TO + simple form
I had to go downtown yesterday to see my dentist.
They had to leave the party early last night.
You must not disturb him.
DO (does, did)
I don’t have to work today.
He doesn’t have to study tonight.
We didn’t have to take the examination.

AUXILIARIES or EQUIVALENT PHRASES that EXPRESS POSSIBILITY and PROBABILITY.

MAY and MIGHT
May seems to be stronger or more emphatic than might. Might is ordinarily used for future time in a noun clause following a past tense verb form.
For present or future time:       MAY, MIGHT + simple form
She may change her mind.
I may be able  to go after all.
 She might have to move to Chicago.
He said that he might transfer to another university next fall.
For past time:                             MAY HAVE, MIGHT HAVE + past participle.
She may have tried to call you yesterday.
I might have left my keys at home.
May not and might not express lack of possibility or probability.
I may not go after all.
They might not be able to come.
They may not have been there at all.

MUST
Also expresses strong probability that approaches expectation.
For present time: MUST +BE
For present or future time: MUST BE + present participle
He isn’t here. He must be out to lunch.
You look happy. You must be having a good time.
According to the telegram, he must be arriving tonight.
For past time: MUST HAVE + past participle
His car is gone. He must have decided to go home early.
You’re on time. You must have got up early today.

POSSIBLY and PROBABLY
He’d probably be able to help you.
He can possibly see you tomorrow.
They probably had to leave early.
She might possibly have tried to call you yesterday.

AUXILIARIES or EQUIVALENT PHRASES used in EXPRESS PREFERENCES and WANTS.

WOULD RATHER
Expresses preference for one thing or one course of action another.
For present or future time: WOULD RATHER + simple form
I would rather have steak than chicken. (or: I would prefer steak to chicken)
He would rather stay home tonight.
For past time: WOULD RATHER HAVE + past participle.
I would rather have had a coat than an umbrella for my birthday.
We’d rather have gone to the baseball game.
Would rather not indicates a preference or desire not to do something.
We would rather not talk about that any more.
I’d rather not be put in charge of the program.

WOULD is used in expressing wants and desires.
For present or future time: WOULD + simple form
I’m hungry. I would like a sandwich. Wouldn’t you?
I’d like to see that movie again sometime.
I’m sure that she would be glad to help you.
He said that he would like to see you again.

For past time: WOULD HAVE + past participle
I think that even you would have liked that book.
I’d have been glad to show you around the city.

WOULD NOT
I wouldn’t want to go though that experience again.
He wouldn’t like to hear you say that, I’m sure. 


PART XII

Verb Forms in Clauses Involving Wishes, Demands, And Conditions.

WISH (THAT) + NOUN CLAUSE
The simple past or the past progressive tense or an equivalent (past form of auxiliary + simple form) is ordinarily used to express a wish for something in present or future time.

Below are some situations involving wishes in present or future time.
(1)    A situation does not exist, but we wish that it did:
I am not an actress, but I certainly wish (that) I were.
He wishes (that) he were able to go to college, but he has to work to support his mother.
We wish (that) you played bridge.
I wish I could speak Chinese. 
(2)    A situation exists, but we wish that it were different or that it did not exist:
She has red hair and freckles, but she wishes (that) she didn’t.
I wish (that) you wouldn’t talk so much about business.
They wish (that) their children were not such poor students.
I wish there were no classes today. 
(3)     A situation is in progress or is of a continuous nature, and we wish that it would change right now or in the near future:
Don’t you wish (that) it would stop raining?
I wish (that) he would finish his speech in a hurry.
I wish (that) I could stop coughing.
We wish you would change the subject.
(4)    A situation cannot exist right now or in the future because circumstances make it impossible, but we still wish that it could:
He wishes (that) he could go with us tonight, but unfortunately he can’t.
We wish (that) you were coming with us, but we know time busy you are.
I wish I could meet you for lunch tomorrow, but I’m going to be out of town.
(5)    A situation is not yet in existence, and we wish for its realization right now in the future:
I wish (that) you would take me out to dinner.
We wish (that) he would marry the girl next door.
Don’t you wish the waiter would hurry up and bring us our soap before it gets cold?

The past perfect tense or an equivalent (past form of auxiliary + have + past participle) is ordinarily used to express a wish for something in past time in a noun clause folag wish or wish that.

Below are some situations involving wishes in past time.
(1)    A situation did not exist, but we wish that it had
He wishes (that) he had taken your advice, but he didn’t pay attention to you at that time.
She wishes (that) she had sent a telegram.
They wish they could have been here for the class reunion.
(2)    A situation existed, but we wish that it had been different or that it had not listed:
She wishes (that) she hadn’t bought a new car.
We wish (that) they hadn’t sent us such an expensive present.
Paul wishes (that) he hadn’t wasted his time when he was in college.


Pengikut