Contextual Learning

Coordinating conjunctions are used to connect two independent clauses (sentences).

Note: A comma always appears before a coordinating conjunction that separates two independent clauses.

*The conjunction for is not common in spoken English.

**Notice question word order is used in the clause that follows nor.

⁺The conjunctions but and yet have similar meanings. However, yet is generally used to show a stronger contrast.

Subordinating conjunctions are used to connect a dependent clause and an independent clause.

Note: When the sentence begins with the dependent clause, a comma should be used after the clause. Following is a list of common subordinating conjunctions.

For present or future time : CAN + simple form

For past time : COULD + simple form

He can swim the length of the pool.

I can see you tomorrow morning.

She could drive a car by the time she was sixteen.

He said that he could come tomorrow.

Cannot (can’t) and could not ( couldn’t) express inability:

He can’t come today.

He couldn’t come yesterday.

For present (future) time: AM (Is, Are) ABLE TO + simple form

For past time                    : WAS (Were) ABLE TO + simple form

For future time:                 WILL BE ABLE TO or AM (Is, Are) GOING TO BE ABLE TO + simple form

I’m able to drive in traffic now.

He is now able to walk without crutches.

They were able to go after all.

We’re going to be able to see you tomorrow.

For future time in a noun clause following a past tense verb form, would be able to or was (were) going to be able to is ordinarily used:

He said that he would be able to help us move next week.

They told me that they were going to be able to leave on Saturday.

Am not, was not (wasn’t) etc. + able to and am, was etc. + unable to express inability.

I’m not able to accept your invitation.

I’m unable to accept your invitation.

MAY, CAN, COULD are used in requesting permission. Although may and can are used interchangeably in making requests, there are some people who consider can unacceptable. Could has the effect of softening can.

For present or future time: MAY/ CAN/ COULD + simple form

May I leave now?

May I see you tomorrow?

Can I borrow your book?

Could I turn in my paper tomorrow?

The use of can’t or couldn’t suggests that the speaker realizes there is some reason why permission may not be given.

I know the assignment is due today, but can’t (couldn’t) I turn it in tomorrow?

MAY, CAN, COULD are used in giving permission.

You may leave now.

You may come back at 5:30.

You can hang your coat here.

You could have an appointment tomorrow.

Cannot (can’t) is ordinarily used when permission is not given:

You can’t come in just now.

You can’t park your car here.

SHOULD and OUGHT TO

For present or future time: SHOULD , OUGHT TO + simple form

You should be ashamed of yourself.

I should study tonight because I’m behind in my homework, but I probably won’t.

She ought to improve her appearance before she looks for a job.

For unfulfilled obligations in past time: SHOULD, OUGHT TO + past participle

I should have given you my telephone number.

He should have seen a doctor.

I told him that he ought to have known better.

Should is ordinarily used in negative statements and in questions:

You shouldn’t smoke so much.

Should I ask jane now?

Shouldn’t you stay home when you have had a cold?

HAD BETTER also expresses as should or ought to.

For present or future time: HAD BETTER + simple form

You had better take care of your cold.

I’d better be on my way now.

Had better not expresses obligation not to do something.

 You had better not go out without a coat.

He’d better not be late again.

MUST and HAVE TO express a strong sense of obligation.

For present or future time : MUST, HAVE (HAS) TO + simple form

They must be there on time.

I must remember to telephone Nancy.

I have to go to the grocery store.

He has to study tonight.

For past time : HAD TO + simple form

I had to go downtown yesterday to see my dentist.

They had to leave the party early last night.

You must not disturb him.

DO (does, did)

I don’t have to work today.

He doesn’t have to study tonight.

We didn’t have to take the examination.

MAY and MIGHT

May seems to be stronger or more emphatic than might. Might is ordinarily used for future time in a noun clause following a past tense verb form.

For present or future time:       MAY, MIGHT + simple form

She may change her mind.

I may be able  to go after all.

 She might have to move to Chicago.

He said that he might transfer to another university next fall.

For past time:                             MAY HAVE, MIGHT HAVE + past participle.

She may have tried to call you yesterday.

I might have left my keys at home.

May not and might not express lack of possibility or probability.

I may not go after all.

They might not be able to come.

They may not have been there at all.

MUST

Also expresses strong probability that approaches expectation.

For present time: MUST +BE

For present or future time: MUST BE + present participle

He isn’t here. He must be out to lunch.

You look happy. You must be having a good time.

According to the telegram, he must be arriving tonight.

For past time: MUST HAVE + past participle

His car is gone. He must have decided to go home early.

You’re on time. You must have got up early today.

POSSIBLY and PROBABLY

He’d probably be able to help you.

He can possibly see you tomorrow.

They probably had to leave early.

She might possibly have tried to call you yesterday.

Expresses preference for one thing or one course of action another.

For present or future time: WOULD RATHER + simple form

I would rather have steak than chicken. (or: I would prefer steak to chicken)

He would rather stay home tonight.

For past time: WOULD RATHER HAVE + past participle.

I would rather have had a coat than an umbrella for my birthday.

We’d rather have gone to the baseball game.

Would rather not indicates a preference or desire not to do something.

We would rather not talk about that any more.

I’d rather not be put in charge of the program.

WOULD is used in expressing wants and desires.

For present or future time: WOULD + simple form

I’m hungry. I would like a sandwich. Wouldn’t you?

I’d like to see that movie again sometime.

I’m sure that she would be glad to help you.

He said that he would like to see you again.

For past time: WOULD HAVE + past participle

I think that even you would have liked that book.

I’d have been glad to show you around the city.

I wouldn’t want to go though that experience again.

He wouldn’t like to hear you say that, I’m sure.